MARX AND THE STATE

Marx never himself wrote a systematic theory of the state.

Louis Althusser (1918-84), the French Marxist philosopher, has developed such a theory of the capitalist state. He suggests that the state in modern societies has two major methods of establishing a capitalist social order. On the hand the state can coerce people into doing what it wants. It does so using what Althusser refers to as the Repressive State Apparatuses which include; the military, the police and the CJS. These RSA's will use force to obtain compliance from the population if the need should arise.

However, as Althusser notes, it is more reasonable if the state can win our consent such that we do what it requires in the belief that what the state requires is the same as what we ourselves require. To the extent that this `works' this is the use made by the state of ideology. The state `socialises' us into a way of thinking such that we will not `dissent' against capitalism. To achieve this the state uses what Althusser calls: Ideological State Apparatuses. These ISAs include the Family, the Education System and Religion. The method here is not to coerce us but to `win our hearts and minds'; to produce an effect in which we think it is in our best interests to follow the capitalist model of society.

IDEOLOGY

For the present we may suggest an ideology to be like a religion, but in modern societies it is usually a 'religion' without a supernatural god; it is a 'secular religion'. We might define an ideology as a set of ideas, beliefs and attitudes which attempt to explain the social and natural worlds.

Marx also suggested that ideologies would perform an important function in modern societies. This was to maintain the capitalist form and economic production and capitalist society. Social institutions would operate so as to instil the capitalist ideology(ies) in order for it to become the dominant ideology. At this point we can indicate the view of Marx that the state in modern societies is a capitalist state due to the fact that its main function is to maintain the capitalist economy in existence. It does so by continually reinforcing the capitalist relations of production. It uses the norms and values of capitalist ideology(ies) in order to persaude people.

For Marx, ideologies were always false explanations of the world and Marx considered them to be the opposite of Science. Science was seen by Marx as the universal truth and safeguard against error. Marx was a believer in the Enlightenment and the principles it generated and sought to establish a scientific socialism free of ideology.

Marx said that the ruling ideas of any society will be the ideas of the ruling class. Of course we know the ruling class is, according to Marx, the capitalist class. Clearly a connection is being made here between this capitalist class and the dominant political and cultural institutions in society.

The connection between the economy and the state is established in a number of ways. It might, for example be made via interpersonal relationships. Thus marriage and family connections may be a way for the capitalist economic class to estalish their authority over the state. However an indirect connection would also be made via ideology. Capitalists and those at the top of the state bureaucracy might share the same beliefs and values.They might, for example, share the same ideals regardinf 'culture', or they might share the same moral code. Importantly they would share the same view of politics and policy claimed Marx. In which case the capitalist class and their interests would be represented in the state and the law and govermental policy-making processes.  One example of such an ideology which Marx was concerned to examine was what he called: The Fetishism of Commodities. This was an ideology, which Marx argued, led to the 'commodification of society'. Now the word fetish is synonymous with fixation and obsession. It usually has a 'target' such as a totem; charm; talisman or a cult object. Marx is suggesting that the commodity has the same effect on us moderns.

For Marx, capitalist society would be based upon a fetish for commodities and consumerism in general . We would, he said, treat commodities in terms of their exchange-value rather than their use-value. Thus the Porsche I am supposed to desire is for me a fetish of its exchange-value, especially as a Lada Riva would have the same use-value as the Porsche...it can get me from A to B, and probably without the attentions of every Police Officer and car thief in between! As one contemporary theorist, Pierre Bourdieu, has argued much in this vein, individuals use commodities in order to make themselves feel exclusive and to create a distinction from other people. This `consumerism' is what dominates capitalist society and is propagated by the capitalist/ ruling class. It is used says Marx not only to help capitalists sell more of their products but to act as a `veil' or a `mask' so as to hide the `bad side' of capitalism especially for the workers. To gloss over the alienation and exploitation. To the extent that this ideology of commodities is successful it will create in the working classes `a false consciousness' of what their true needs are.

To the extent that this consumerism 'works' the working classes will see themselves primarily as `consumers' and their ambitions will be the non-political aims of amassing commodities. The commodity becomes a `god' which will be idolised and become a `lucky charm'. `I shop therefore I am' becomes the motto of modern society. Marx suggested that all society would be commodified as capitalism developed.

A REFINEMENT TO THE THEORY OF IDEOLOGY

Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937), an Italian Marxist, has suggested that this need to `win consent' is fundamental to the capitalist state. He uses the concept of hegemony so as to explain the use of power by the state in society. Hegemony refers to the manner in which institutions such as the state are said to occupy a powerful (hegemonic) position within society. With the use of this concept Gramsci furthers the analysis begun by Marx by suggesting that the original assumption of Marx that the state was merely `a committee' operating on behalf of the capitalists is only partially correct. 'Things' as it were are a bit more complex than Marx thought!

Gramsci suggests that the state is governed at any given time by a `power bloc'. A power bloc whose objective is to win civil hegemony. This entails a power over civil society. Now the notion of civil society is extremely ambiguous in the social sciences. But for Gramsci it is defined as that `bit' of society `between' the economy and the state. It would seem that in Gramsci's concept of the civil society we can include the family, community life, the voluntary sector, popular culture and the high culture of Art etc.. Indeed this would seem to accord with Gramsci's designation of civil society as that area where the individual is most likely to feel `as if' they are a private citizen free from the state and the `dull compulsion to work'.

This `power bloc' is not a single class however. It is alliance of fractions of classes (`bits' of classes) but importantly it consists of at least one element of the lower classes. This subordinate element is incorporated so that `it appears' as if the power bloc were democratic and representative of all society. The `power bloc' uses ideology to dominate civil society: civil hegemony. The power-bloc is bound together by ideology.

All capitalist states' power blocs will use the ideology of nationalism. They will use various symbols and ideas in order to sustain this nationalism:The Flag; Parliament; the Monarchy; England's football team and the Olympic Squad.

This power bloc will seek to establish and maintain a `selective tradition' in terms of national culture. Culture here would include our customs and ways of doing things. Thus the National Culture in the case of Britain would include our sense of `compromise', our `reserved' non-extrovert interaction ( compare us to the Americans or Italians for example). Equally our sense and use of fashion would also be said to have national characteristics.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

So Marx has built a relational model of economic production relations and attempted to demonstrate the implications of this model not just for the rest of the economy but for the political, social and cultural aspects of a society.

His theory is Holistic. As noted above the writings of Marx are similiar to Durkheim's to the extent that they are macro-sociological. Yet there are many differences between Marx and Durkheim.